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Uruguay was a part of Spain's colonial empire in the Americas until the early
1800s, when revolutionary forces ousted the Spanish. Both Argentina and Brazil
then laid claim to Uruguayan territory and lent support to the opposing
political factions struggling to control the region. International mediation of
the dispute led to the establishment of Uruguay as an independent nation in
1828. Throughout most of its history, Uruguay has been a democracy. However, a
leftist guerrilla movement in the 1970s led to a harsh crackdown that resulted
in more than a decade of repressive military dictatorship. Democracy was
restored in the 1980s.
Unlike most South American
nations, Uruguay has a population that is largely of European origin, with few
mestizos (people of mixed European and Native American ancestry) and no
remaining indigenous people. Uruguay is a highly urbanized country, even though
its economy is based largely on agriculture, particularly livestock raising,
which flourishes on the rolling plains of the countryside. Tourism is also
important, with foreign travelers attracted to the fine beaches along the
Atlantic coast.
II. Land and Resources
Uruguay is in many ways a
transition zone between the plains of the Argentine Pampas and the hilly
Brazilian uplands. The terrain varies from rolling plains to low plateaus and
hills. Uruguay has 660 km (410 mi) of coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and its
estuary, the Río de la Plata. The country has an additional 813 km (505 mi) of
frontage along its boundary rivers, including 435 km (270 mi) on the Uruguay
River.
A. Natural Regions
The terrain in the south
consists of grassy, rolling plains. Along the Atlantic coast, lagoons, sandy
beaches, and sand dunes extend inland for 8 km (5 mi) or more. In the north and
northwest is a low plateau, the Cuchilla de Haedo, diversified by ridges of
hills that rise to an extreme height of 377 m (1,237 ft) above sea level. The
eastern portion of the country is dominated by the Cuchilla Grande, a hilly
region that extends generally south from Brazil to a point near Punta del Este; the Cuchilla Grande rises to 501 m (1,644 ft) at Mirador Nacional, the highest
elevation in Uruguay.
The Cuchilla Grande acts as a
drainage divide between the shorter streams flowing east to the Atlantic and
streams flowing west to the Uruguay River. West of the divide the country is
gently rolling; the only breaks in this surface occur along the relatively
narrow river valleys. Woodland occurs chiefly along the riverbanks. The Río
Negro is the principal river of the Uruguayan interior; only its lower portion
is navigable. The Uruguay River is navigable from its mouth to Salto.
B. Climate
Uruguay has a temperate climate.
The average temperature for the warmest months, January and February, is 21.7°C
(71°F), and for the coldest month, June, 10°C (50°F). Rainfall is well
distributed and averages about 890 mm (about 35 in) a year. During the winter
months cold storms, known as pamperos, blow from the southwest, but frost is
virtually unknown in most parts of the country.
C. Natural Resources
The country's principal
resources are agricultural; minerals are scarce. Except for the sandy, marshy
soils along the eastern coast, the soils are generally very fertile. A lush
grass cover provides ample supplies of organic matter, and moderate, evenly
distributed rainfall prevents excessive leaching, which can wash nutrients out
of soil. Hydroelectric power is of major importance in Uruguay. The principal
hydroelectric power plant is Salto Grande on the Uruguay River; two other plants
are in operation on the Río Negro, and another, on the Brazilian border, was
constructed during the 1980s. The electric power industry is under the control
of the government.
D. Plants and Animals
The predominant vegetation in
Uruguay is tall prairie grass. The bluish-tinted prairies provide an extremely
rich natural pasture and still retain much of their original character. On the
ridges, tall grass gives way to less nutritious varieties of short bunchgrass.
Forests cover about three percent of Uruguay, which has a smaller forest area
than any other South American country. On the prairies, a small purple flower
grows in such abundance that Uruguay sometimes is called the Purple Land. Other
flowering plants are myrtle, mimosa, rosemary, and scarlet-flowered ceiba.
Indigenous hardwood trees include urunday, lapacho, carob, quebracho, jacaranda,
willow, and acacia. Palms flourish in the southeast and in the valleys of the
central region and the north. In the coastal area, pine and eucalyptus trees
have been planted to halt the movement of sand. Poplar, cypress, oak, cedar,
mulberry, and magnolia also have been introduced.
Puma, rhea (American ostrich),
tapir, and seal, which were relatively abundant when the Spanish first visited
Uruguay, are now scarce. Deer, otter, wild hog, fox, wildcat, armadillo,
anteater, and various rodents are the most frequently seen mammals.
Waterfowl include the swan,
stork, crane, white heron, and duck. Other birds are the vulture, burrowing owl,
partridge, quail, wild turkey, parakeet, lapwing, cardinal, and hummingbird. The
principal reptiles are lizard, tortoise, rattlesnake, and a viper called the víbora
de la cruz. Alligators are found in the upper waters of the Uruguay River. Large
spiders are numerous.
III. Population
The people of Uruguay are
predominantly of European origin, and many of them are foreign-born. They came
chiefly from Spain, Italy, Brazil, Argentina, and France, although after World
War II (1939-1945) some immigrants arrived from eastern and central Europe. Only
about 5 to 10 percent are mestizos (persons of mixed European and Native
American ancestry). None of the small original Native American population
remains.
Uruguay has a large middle
class, which developed in the 20th century, partly because the government
employed a large portion of the population in white-collar jobs. These jobs
afforded many people slow but steady upward social mobility, but they also
created a considerable gap between the urban rich and the rural poor.
A. Population
Characteristics
The population of Uruguay is
3,332,782 (2000 estimate). The average population density is 19 persons per sq
km (49 per sq mi). The population is concentrated near the coast. Only 9 percent
of the population is rural. Migration from farms to cities and the resultant
strain on cities has been a serious social and economic problem. Since the 1960s
tourism has stimulated the development of beach resorts east of Montevideo. The
most famous of these resorts, Punta del Este, draws vacationers from all over
the world. In the interior cities, economic activity centers on agriculture.
B. Principal Cities
The principal cities of Uruguay
are Montevideo (population, 1996, 1,378,707), the country's capital, chief port,
and economic center; Salto (117,597), a center of commerce, shipping, and the
meat-salting and meat-packing industries; and Paysandú (111,509), a port and
center of the meat-packing and frozen-meat industries.
C. Religion and Language
Freedom of religion is
guaranteed by the constitution of Uruguay. Three-quarters of the people belong
to the Roman Catholic Church. Spanish is the official language.
D. Education
Uruguay has one of the highest
rates of literacy (97.8 percent of the adult population) in Latin America.
Primary education is compulsory, and Uruguay is one of the few nations in the
Western Hemisphere in which all education, including college and postgraduate
work, is free. In 1996 primary schools numbered 2,415 and were attended by
345,600 students; secondary schools had an enrollment of 170,700. Institutions
of higher education include the University of the Republic (1849) and about 40
teacher-training schools.
E. Culture and Art
Western European tradition is
widespread in Uruguay today. By the 19th century most of the Native Americans
had been supplanted by Europeans, chiefly Spaniards and Italians. Since then the
country has adopted the cultural institutions of these immigrants. As in
Argentina, which has folk music and dances similar to those of Uruguay, the
gaucho (South American cowboy) has been the subject of folklore and music.
1. Literature
Colonial literature was largely
limited to science, education, and religion. Uruguay's first noteworthy writer
to use gaucho themes was 18th-century poet Bartolomé Hidalgo. Although not a
gaucho himself, he was one of the first poets to introduce the colorful language
of rural folk into poetry. Juan Zorrilla de San Martín wrote Tabaré (1886;
translated 1956), considered one of the genuine epic poems of America. Tabaré
describes the clash between Spanish settlers and indigenous people in Uruguay
that ended in the destruction of the indigenous culture.
Important writers of the 20th
century were essayist José Enrique Rodó; novelists and short-story writers
Juan Carlos Onetti, Carlos Martínez Moreno, and Mario Benedetti; and poet Julio
Herrera y Reissig. Other significant Uruguayan authors of the century include
Carlos Reyles, a writer of realistic psychological novels; Horacio Quiroga, one
of Latin America's finest short-story writers; Julio Herrera y Reissig, a
complex symbolist poet; and Alberto Zum Felde, a historian and literary critic.
Uruguay has also produced many talented women writers, including Delmira
Agustini, Juana de Ibarbourou, Sara Bollo, Éster de Cáceres, Sara de Ibáñez, and Orfila Bardesio. Florencio Sánchez, Latin America's best-known dramatist,
wrote realistic plays of national problems around the end of the 19th century
and the beginning of the 20th century.
2. Painting
Juan Manuel Blanes was Uruguay's
foremost painter of the 19th century. The Municipal Museum of Fine Arts in
Montevideo now bears his name. Three important artists of the 20th century were
Rafael Barradas, an abstract painter; Pedro Figari, a painter of colorful
19th-century scenes in the postimpressionist style; and Joaquín Torres-García, who founded the Torres-García workshop, which influenced a generation of
Uruguayan painters.
3. Music
Uruguayan folk and popular music
reflect the mood of the people and of the land. Songs include the melancholy
Vidala and Triste, and the dreamy and plaintive Estilo, a song of the plains.
One of the foremost musicologists of Latin America is Francisco Curt Lange, who
has collected and published hundreds of the region's folk songs. Among composers
of the 20th century were Eduardo Fabini, whose works are based mainly on native
themes; Cluzeau Mortet; Vincente Ascone; and Héctor Tosar, who is also a
pianist.
F. Cultural Institutions
All the major libraries in
Uruguay are in Montevideo. They include the National Library; the Library of the
National Historical Museum, known for its collection of engravings, maps, coins,
and native Uruguayan material; the National Congress Library; and the library of
the National Archives.
The principal museums include
the National Historical Museum, the National Museum of Fine Arts, and the Museum
of Natural History, all in Montevideo. The Museo del Indo y del Gaucho, in
Tacuarembó, has collections of Native American and gaucho art, weapons, and
implements.
IV. Economy
Agriculture, specifically stock
raising, is of primary importance to the economy, although manufacturing is
increasing in significance. Most businesses are privately owned, but the
government operates the state railways, electrical power and telephones, and the
official broadcasting service. In 1997 budget figures showed $6.3 billion in
revenue and $6.6 billion in expenditure.
A. Agriculture
Stock raising is the principal
agricultural activity of Uruguay and the mainstay of the economy, contributing
more than 35 percent of yearly Uruguayan exports in the form of meat, wool, and
hides. The moderate climate, with few local variations in temperature, and the
even distribution of precipitation make it possible to pasture stock throughout
the year. In 1999 livestock numbered 10.7 million cattle, 15.5 million sheep,
500,000 horses, and 360,000 hogs. Wool production in 1999 was 75,503 metric
tons. Only 7 percent of the land is devoted to crops, although the area under
cultivation is gradually increasing. The principal crops are sugarcane, sugar
beets, wheat, rice, potatoes, sorghum, and corn.
B. Forestry and Fishing
In 1998 some 3.9 million cubic
meters (137 million cubic feet) of roundwood were cut; most of the harvest is
typically used for fuel. The fishing industry expanded dramatically during the
1970s. The total catch in 1997 was 136,912 metric tons.
C. Mining and Manufacturing
Mineral production in Uruguay is
comparatively unimportant to the economy. The principal mining activity is the
quarrying of sand and clay. The government has encouraged the development of
export-oriented manufacturing industries; overall industrial production grew
rapidly in the late 1970s but declined from 1980 to 1988. The leading industrial
activities are the manufacture of woolen, cotton, and rayon textiles and the
processing of food, primarily meat. Oil refining, cement manufacturing, and the
production of clothing, steel, aluminum, electrical equipment, and chemicals are
also important industries in the country. A steel-manufacturing plant at Nueva
Palmira was opened in the early 1980s.
D. Currency, Banking, and
Trade
The legal currency of Uruguay is
the peso uruguayo, consisting of 100 centésimos (10.50 pesos uruguayos equal
U.S.$1; 1998 average). In 1993 the peso uruguayo replaced Uruguay's former
currency, the nuevo peso, at the rate of 1 peso uruguayo per 1,000 nuevo pesos.
Uruguay has a well-developed banking system, with many private banks. The Bank
of the Republic (1896) is a state bank and the financial agent of the
government. The Central Bank of Uruguay (1967) is the sole bank of issue and
controls private banking.
Foreign trade plays an important
role in the economy of Uruguay. In 1998 exports were valued at $2.9 billion and
imports at $3.8 billion. The leading purchasers of the country's exports are
Brazil, Argentina, the United States, Germany, and Italy; chief sources for
imports are Brazil, Argentina, and the United States. Textiles and textile
products, meats, fish, rice, and hides are the most important exports. Tourism,
especially from Argentina, is an increasingly important source of foreign
currency. Uruguay imports raw materials for manufacturing, fuel and lubricants,
food products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, construction materials, synthetic
plastics and resins, machinery and parts, and motor vehicles. Uruguay is a
founding member of the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and of the
Southern Cone Common Market (known by its Spanish acronym MERCOSUR). The LAIA,
which encompasses all of the countries in South America except Suriname, Guyana,
and French Guiana, works toward increasing trade and regional integration. The
MERCOSUR group, which also includes Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay and is
headquartered in Montevideo, works toward establishing duty-free trade between
members.
E. Transportation and
Communications
About 90 percent of the
Uruguayan railroad system was British-owned until 1947, when it was purchased by
the government of Uruguay. The railroad system has a total of 3,003 km (1,866
mi) of track. The national airline, known as PLUNA, was sold to private
interests in 1994. Several foreign airlines also provide service to and from
Uruguay. About one-eighth of Uruguay's road system is hard surfaced. River
transport is extensive; navigable waterways total about 1,250 km (about 780 mi).
In 1997 Uruguay had 603 radio
receivers and 239 television sets for every 1,000 inhabitants. Some 36 daily
newspapers are published.
F. Labor
The chief labor federation, the
National Confederation of Workers, includes 200 unions, with a total of about
900,000 members
V. Government
According to the constitution of
1966, Uruguay has a democratic republican form of government with a popularly
elected president and legislature. In 1973, however, the National Congress was
dissolved by the military, and in 1976 the elected president was deposed. The
country was subsequently ruled by a military-supported regime. General elections
held in 1984 paved the way for a return to civilian rule.
A. Executive
From the mid-1970s to the
mid-1980s, executive power in Uruguay was held by a president elected by the
Council of the Nation, a body composed of the Council of State (the legislature)
and 25 high-ranking military officers. The electoral system restored in 1984
provides for a president chosen by universal suffrage for a five-year term.
B. Legislature
The General Assembly, Uruguay's
legislature, consists of a Chamber of Deputies, which has 99 members, and a
Senate, with 30 members. Elected by popular vote, members of the legislature
serve a five-year term.
C. Political Parties
For much of its history, Uruguay
essentially had a two-party system, dominated by the National (Blanco) Party and
the Colorado Party. Both of these parties were formed in the 1830s by two
important military leaders, General Manuel Oribe and General José F. Rivera,
respectively. During most of the 19th century the titles denoted little more
than the personal followings of these two men and of their successors.
Gradually, the Colorado Party's chief support came from the cities and that of
the Blancos came from the country. As European immigrants brought more radical
ideas to the country, the Colorados became associated with the more liberal
urban population, while the Blancos typified the conservative and traditionalist
elements of the rural population.
However, since the 1930s there
has been no significant programmatic contrast between the two parties. Rather,
both Colorados and Blancos have been divided into several factions, and the
political divisions among these factions have been far more important than any
division between the parties themselves. By the 1990s both the Colorados and the
Blancos were conservative.
The Communist Party was
legalized in Uruguay in 1985. A leftist coalition, known as the Broad Front,
grew in popularity in the 1990s. The Broad Front included Communist and
Socialist parties and replaced the Colorados as the party of the left.
D. Local Government
Uruguay is divided into 19
administrative departments. Each department has an administrator appointed by
the central government.
E. Judiciary
In 1977 the judiciary was placed
under the direct control of the central government. The highest court, the Court
of Justice, has five members, appointed by the executive to serve five-year
terms. The administrative courts hear cases involving the functioning of state
administration. Lower courts consist of 19 civil courts and 10 criminal and
correctional courts in Montevideo, and departmental courts in the departmental
capitals and other large towns.
F. Health and Welfare
The ministry of public health
and its various appointed commissions have established health centers and
clinics, checked the incidence of tuberculosis, and lowered the infant mortality
rate. In 1992 Uruguay had one physician for every 312 inhabitants and one
hospital bed for every 222 inhabitants. Life expectancy at birth in 2000
averaged 80 years for women and 73 for men.
The country is noted for its
advanced social-welfare programs; coverage includes accidents, occupational
illnesses, sickness, old age, maternity, and child welfare. A special fund
issues grants to families; and laws have been passed to protect women and minors
in employment.
G. Defense
In 1998 Uruguay had an active
volunteer army of 17,600 soldiers. The navy and air force were small, having
forces of 5,000 and 3,000, respectively. Military service is not compulsory.
VI. History
The Charrúa, a warlike and
seminomadic indigenous people, originally occupied the land on the eastern side
of the Uruguay and La Plata rivers. Spanish explorer Juan Díaz de Solís was
the first European to arrive in the territory now included in Uruguay. In 1516
his landing party sailed into Río de la Plata. That same year, the Charrúa
killed Solis's party on the riverbanks. Subsequent attempts to colonize the
territory during the 16th century were discouraged by the Charrúa. The first
permanent settlement was made in 1624 by the Spanish on the Río Negro at
Soriano.
A. International Rivalry
During the Colonial Period
Between 1680 and 1683,
contesting Spanish ownership of the region, Portuguese colonists in Brazil
established several settlements, such as the Novo Colonia del Sacramento, along
the Río de la Plata opposite Buenos Aires. However, the Spanish made no attempt
to dislodge the Portuguese until 1723, when the latter began fortifying the
heights around the Bay of Montevideo. A Spanish expedition from Buenos Aires
forced the Portuguese to abandon the site, and there the Spanish founded the
city of Montevideo in 1726. Spanish-Portuguese rivalry continued in the 18th
century, ending in 1777 with the establishment of Spanish rule in the territory
under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalty of La Plata.
A crisis occurred in the colony
after French emperor Napoleon imprisoned Spanish king Ferdinand VII and invaded
Spain in 1808. After French troops captured the last royalist stronghold in
Spain in 1810, a group of leading citizens in Buenos Aires rejected the
authority of the viceroy and established a caretaker government to rule over the
colony in the name of King Ferdinand. In reality, many of the leaders of the new
government were determined to make the colony independent of Spanish rule.
Buenos Aires was unable to establish its influence over several outlying areas,
including Uruguay, where the Spanish viceroy had moved his court. In 1810 and
1811, Uruguayan revolutionaries, led by General José Gervasio Artigas, joined
in the revolt against Spain. The Spanish governor was driven from Montevideo in
1814.
In 1816 the Portuguese in Brazil—perceiving
that the newly emancipated territory, known as the Banda Oriental del Uruguay
(Eastern Shore of Uruguay), was weak after its struggle with Spain—invaded the
territory, ostensibly to restore order. The Portuguese conquest was completed in
1821, when the Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil. However, the so-called
Immortal 33, a group of revolutionaries led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, began
fighting the Brazilians and driving them from the countryside. In 1825
representatives from the Banda Oriental's provincial legislature declared the
territory's independence. Argentina intervened on Uruguay's behalf, and war
broke out between Brazil and Argentina. British mediation brought about a peace
treaty, by which both Brazil and Argentina guaranteed Uruguay's independence. As
a result, the República Oriental del Uruguay was established in 1828; its first
constitution was adopted in 1830.
However, Uruguay has never been
entirely free of the influence of its neighbors. During much of the 19th
century, the warring factional leaders (caudillos) appealed to either Argentina
or Brazil for help against each other, and civil war was frequent until 1872.
The followers of José Fructuoso Rivera, the country's first president
(1830-1834), who were distinguishable by their red (colorado) hatbands, appealed
to Brazil for support. The followers of Manuel Oribe, the country's second
president (1835-1838), who were distinguishable by their white (blanco)
hatbands, turned to Argentina. From these factions arose Uruguay's traditional
political parties, the Blancos and the Colorados.
B. Independence and Civil
War
The República Oriental del
Uruguay was organized in 1830, but it was soon divided into hostile factions as
a result of rivalry between the Blancos and the Colorados. Civil war broke out
in 1836. During the conflict, the Blancos, aided by Argentine forces, besieged
Montevideo, which was held by the Colorados from 1843 until 1852. The Colorados,
aided by Brazil and anti-Argentine forces, defeated Oribe and the Blancos in
1852. Rivera and the Colorados thereupon took power. The two factions renewed
conflict in 1855 and continued it intermittently, with the Colorados retaining
control almost continuously after 1865.
Between 1865 and 1870 Uruguay
was allied with Brazil and Argentina in a war against Paraguay. In the War of
the Triple Alliance (1865-1870), Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay fought
Paraguay's attempts to establish its influence in Uruguay. Although the allies
won the war, both sides suffered heavy losses. Bitter fighting continued between
the Blancos and the Colorados until 1872, when they agreed to divide the country
into spheres of influence as a first step toward peaceful coexistence. Foreign
interventions tapered off after the War of the Triple Alliance, and the improved
political conditions, which developed as the result of the agreement between the
parties, led to social and economic progress. The last decades of the 19th
century were years of relative peace.
The era of peace was interrupted
by the murder of President Juan Idiarte Borda of the Colorado Party in 1897.
After Idiarte's assassination, the Blancos and the Colorados concluded another
territorial agreement. This agreement preserved Blanco strength within only a
limited area. European immigration increased after 1880 as settlers were
attracted by the prospects of peace and fertile soil. Most of these immigrants
adopted Colorado ideas. The election of José Batlle y Ordóñez to the
presidency in 1903 caused the Blancos to fear the agreement would be discarded
because the Colorado Party now held a large majority of votes. Another civil war
broke out, and it ended with the defeat of the Blancos. The interparty agreement
was ended by the new government. The Blancos were granted amnesty, however.
C. Early-20th-Century
Domestic and Foreign Issues
In the early 20th century,
membership in the two rival political groups ceased to be merely a matter of
traditional loyalties. The Blancos became the conservative party, attracting
chiefly the rural population and the clergy, and the Colorados became known as
progressive and proponents of advanced social legislation. During the second
presidential term of José Batlle y Ordóñez, between 1911 and 1915, social
legislation was enacted, and Uruguay soon became known as the most progressive
nation in South America.
Batlle's moderately socialist
program included the establishment of many government-owned businesses, some of
which were monopolies. His program also promoted retirement and medical-aid
programs; free education; extensive labor legislation; and public health
measures. Much of this program was put into effect by Batlle's successors.
Batlle never succeeded in establishing a policy of agrarian reform because rural
landowners had sufficient power in the legislature to block such reforms.
In 1917, during World War I,
Uruguay broke off relations with Germany and leased German ships, seized in the
harbor of Montevideo, to the United States. In that year a new constitution,
dividing the executive authority between the president and the national
administrative council and providing for the separation of church and state, was
promulgated. Uruguay joined the League of Nations in 1920.
In 1933 President Gabriel Terra,
who had taken office in 1931, demanded that the Uruguayan constitution be
amended to allow the president wider powers. His demands brought threats of
revolution, and he thereupon established a dictatorship with the cooperation of
Luis Alberto de Herrera, the Blanco Party leader. The two men ruled together in
a mild dictatorship in which all government positions and spoils were divided
among their followers. A new constitution adopted in 1934 made this agreement
law and curtailed individual liberties.
General Alfredo Baldomir, the
leading Colorado, began the restoration of democratic government. He was elected
president in 1938. A new constitution adopted in 1942 provided for a single
president, no special status for either party, and the full restoration of
liberties. During World War II (1939-1945), Uruguay severed diplomatic,
financial, and economic relations with the Axis powers. In 1945 the country
joined the United Nations (UN).
D. Postwar Decade
Tomás Berreta, candidate of the
Colorado Party and former public works minister, was elected president in 1946,
but he died a few months after taking office. Vice President Luis Batlle Berres
completed the remainder of Berreta's term. During this time, government policy
became more conservative and government efforts centered on consolidation of the
social changes introduced originally by Batlle and his successors. The
presidential and general assembly elections of 1950 brought Andrés Martínez
Trueba of the Colorado Party to power. In 1952 a Trueba-sponsored constitutional
amendment, approved the year before, abolished the presidency and transferred
executive power to a nine-member national council of government.
In retaliation against the
Uruguayan policy of granting asylum to Argentine political refugees, Argentine
dictator Juan Perón imposed travel and trade restrictions on Uruguay. The
government, in protest, severed diplomatic relations with Argentina in January
1953.
Meanwhile, declining wool prices
and curtailed meat exports had led to increasing unemployment and inflation. To
ease the economic situation, Uruguay entered into trade agreements during 1956
with the People's Republic of China and other Communist countries. The economy
continued to deteriorate, however.
In 1958, after 93 years of
Colorado government, an overwhelming majority elected the Blancos to power,
partly as a reaction to the prolonged economic recession. The new government
initiated economic reforms; it was faced, however, with leftist agitation and
consequent labor unrest, and it charged that Uruguay was being made a base of
international communism.
E. Political Deterioration
The Blancos continued in power
until 1966. In that year they and the Colorados supported a measure for a return
to the presidential system, and the measure was approved by referendum in
November. In general elections held at the same time, the Colorados won, and
Oscar Daniel Gestido, a retired air force general, was elected president. After
Gestido died, Vice President Jorge Pacheco Areco succeeded to the presidency.
Trying to halt Uruguay's rampant
inflation, Pacheco immediately instituted wage and price controls. Labor
disputes erupted, and Pacheco declared a state of emergency in June 1968 and
again in June 1969. During these states of emergency, constitutional guarantees
were suspended, student demonstrators were shot, hundreds of suspected
dissidents were imprisoned, and the police began to use torture during
interrogations.
A group of student
revolutionaries, the Tupamaros (a name taken from Tupac Amarú, a Peruvian Inca
who had led an uprising against the Spaniards in 1780), responded with an urban
guerrilla campaign. They kidnapped and later released a number of foreign
diplomats and businessmen, robbed several banks, freed political prisoners from
the jails, and assassinated a number of police officials. From June 1968 until
March 1969, Uruguay remained under modified martial law. In June 1969 a
fact-finding visit by Nelson Rockefeller, who was then governor of New York
State, was met by violent demonstrations. Pacheco imposed a modified state of
siege.
In elections in 1971 the
Colorado candidate, Juan María Bordaberry, and the Blanco candidate were
virtually tied. In 1972 the Electoral Court proclaimed Bordaberry president, and
he began a five-year term. Meanwhile, violence by the Tupamaros had escalated,
and kidnappings and killings became common. After widespread arrests in 1971,
some 150 Tupamaros escaped in two separate prison breaks. In April 1972 Congress
declared a state of internal war and suspended constitutional guarantees; some
35,000 police and military searched for guerrilla hideouts. The state of war was
lifted in July, but constitutional guarantees were further suspended until 1973.
Bordaberry soon came under pressure, both from the Blancos and from dissident
factions of his own party. Labor reacted to the government's stringent economic
and social policies with strikes throughout 1972. Inflation soared, and the
currency was devalued ten times in that year.
F. Military Takeover
Following the largely successful
suppression of the guerrillas, military leaders became convinced that they
should play a central role in the country's political affairs. In February 1973
they demanded the creation of a military "national security council"
to control the administration. This arrangement led to a conflict with Congress.
Bordaberry then dissolved the legislature, replacing it with a 25-member
appointed Council of State that was dominated by the military. The Communist-led
National Labor Confederation (CNT) responded with a general strike, which was
broken by the government on July 11 after violent confrontations. On August 11
the autonomy of the unions was ended and the CNT was banned. In the following
years the military extended its control to most of the country's institutions.
In 1976 Bordaberry canceled elections scheduled for that year.
Such plans contrasted with the
wishes of the armed forces for a gradual return to democracy. The military
deposed Bordaberry in June 1976. A new national council of 25 civilians and 21
military officers subsequently elected Aparicio Méndez, a former minister of
public health, as president for a five-year term. One of the first acts of his
government was to withhold political rights from people active in politics
between 1966 and 1973. The military regime maintained intense political
repression. More than 1 in 1,000 Uruguayans were held as political prisoners,
and there was widespread torture.
In 1980 the regime attempted to
legitimize itself by obtaining approval for a new constitution that would give
the armed forces a permanent supervisory role over the government. That
constitution was overwhelmingly rejected in a popular referendum. In 1981
General Gregorio Alvarez was installed as president for a term expiring in 1985.
Alvarez restored political
rights to some politicians. However, all the left-wing parties and the most
popular leaders of the traditional parties remained banned. In the next three
years popular opposition to the regime, intensified by an economic downturn,
became increasingly open. This opposition culminated in a demonstration by
400,000 Uruguayans in Montevideo in November 1983 and a general strike in
January 1984. The armed forces, isolated by the collapse of military rule in
Argentina, finally agreed to hold elections and restore civilian government. The
military stipulated that the opposition parties had to agree to exclude banned
politicians from the elections, and they also had to promise that the military
would be immune from prosecution for abuses against political dissidents.
G. Civilian Government
Presidential elections were held
in November 1984, with the armed forces exercising veto power over the choice of
nominees. The winner was a moderate, Julio María Sanguinetti of the Colorado
Party. He took office in March 1985. An amnesty covering all members of the
military accused of human rights violations from 1973 to 1985 was granted in
1986 and upheld by referendum in 1989. The government executed about 150
Uruguayans between 1973 and 1985. About 200 people “disappeared,” and
thousands of others were imprisoned and tortured.
In 1989 Luis Alberto Lacalle of
the Blancos was elected president. Economic stagnation and rising inflation soon
prompted him to implement an austerity program and to announce plans to
privatize state-run companies. In protest, labor leaders called a series of
general strikes. Former president Julio María Sanguinetti, a candidate for the
Colorado Party, won the 1994 presidential election. In legislative elections the
Broad Front, a leftist coalition that includes Communists, Socialists, and
former Tupamaro guerrillas, made significant inroads against the more
traditional Blanco and Colorado parties.
In November 1999 the Colorado
Party's Jorge Batlle defeated the Broad Front's Tabaré Vásquez in Uruguay's
presidential election. Vásquez had forced a runoff by winning the first round
in October, and Batlle was only able to win after gaining the Blancos' support.
The Broad Front won pluralities in both houses of the legislature in the October
legislative elections.
Source: Microsoft Encarta
encyclopedia
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